As well as the various editorial charters and codes of ethics and practice, some useful resource packages are available to help journalism students handle reporting in sensitive areas. Also, research has been undertaken by academics to help journalism students prepare for the moral and ethical minefields ahead. Here we include a brief mention of some of the resources around specific issues that often crop up in newsrooms.
The reporting of mental health and suicide
Depression, labelled the ‘black dog' more than half a century ago by Winston Churchill, claimed some high-profile people in 2006-among them the Western Australian Premier, Geoff Gallop, the Queensland Attorney-General, Linda Lavarch, and rugby league legend, Steve Rogers (father of current dual international, Mat Rogers). For the media it highlighted the sensitivity surrounding the reporting of mental illness. In the United Kingdom, the Press Complaints Commission announced new guidelines aimed at preventing copycat suicides after high-profile media coverage (O. Gibson 2006). Advice on handling both issues has been available in Australia for a number of years.
Reporting Suicide and Mental Illness: A Resource for Media Professionals, produced in consultation with the media industry under the ‘Mindframe' initiative (available at http://www.mindframe-media.info) contains useful sections on facts and statistics on suicide and mental illness, and suggests possible contacts. Useful quick reference guides-in the form of two-page back-to-back A4 cards-include facts and statistics, issues to consider when reporting suicide or mental illness, and useful contacts in the areas of ‘help lines', statistics and research, Health Departments, and non-governmental suicide or mental health organisations. The materials were updated in mid 2006, and expanded to include materials for Indigenous media, and culturally and linguistically diverse media. The primary focus of the materials is the working media, but copies are being used by journalism educators and can be downloaded from their website.
The Hunter Institute of Mental Health, through its Response Ability project, has produced a resource package for journalism students on reporting mental illness and suicide. It is a comprehensive teaching resource designed to introduce tertiary journalism students to the issues associated with mental illness and suicide, and to provide suggestions for appropriate reporting. As well as a constantly updated web site (http://www.responseability.org), the project resources include dramatised hypothetical case studies on CD and video, examples of recent Australian reporting on suicide and mental illness, and guides to reporting on mental illness and suicide. The Hunter Institute works closely with journalism educators around the country in the continuing development of these resources, and has ensured all institutions with journalism programs have copies of the resources. A number of journalism programs include discussion of the hypotheticals in their ethics classes.
Indigenous reporting
The 1991 Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody noted that the media is ‘a principal source of information for the public and is generally considered to play an important part on forming-or at least influencing-public consciousness and public opinion' (Lawe Davies et al. 1998) Among the Royal Commission's recommendations relevant to journalism education was the request that staff ensure that courses contain a significant component relating to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander affairs, and consider, in consultation with media industry and media unions, the creation of specific units of study dedicated to Aboriginal affairs and their reporting (Lawe Davies et al. 1998). The Media and Indigenous Australians Project (MIAP) began consultations in 1995, and produced a series of teaching resources four years later. The materials provide teaching modules on the main journalism areas of news values, lead writing, research, interviewing, news writing, subediting, using statistics, ethical decision-making, news sources, feature writing, investigative journalism, advanced news writing, and statistics, as well as specialist rounds written from an Indigenous reporting perspective. Each module has a structure of introduction, goals, strategies, tasks, process, and resources.
The various modules are aimed at stimulating student thinking about Indigenous issues and encouraging critical reflection on how Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander affairs are presented in the media. We noted earlier that journalists come into the media industry with a set of values that influence the way they report. The MIAP team wrote that the learning materials ‘are not designed as an exercise in telling students what they ought to think about Indigenous issues, but rather are intended to help students identify what they already think, the basis of that thinking and how such views might impact on their professional practice' (Lawe Davies et al. 1998). Copies of this resource package should also be in the libraries of universities where journalism is taught. Griffith University academic and journalism educator Dr Michael Meadows has researched the Australian media's reporting of Indigenous issues since white settlement and he concludes: ‘The picture that emerges ... is a long history of media misrepresentation of Indigenous Australians. Several clear patterns emerge: either they are omitted or reported as problems, deviants, linked with crime and disruption. There are exceptions, of course, but the overriding images are negative' (Meadows 1995, p. 24).
The April 1999 version of the Commercial Television Industry Code of Practice contains several ‘advisory notes'. One is on the portrayal of Aboriginal people and Torres Strait Islanders. It urges Commercial Television Australia (CTVA-formerly FACTS and now Free TV Australia) members to produce programs ‘which treat the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples as an integral and important part of contemporary Australia, and which respect the dignity, traditions, diversity and contemporary achievements of these peoples' (Free TV Australia 2004). It warns reporters to be conscious of their own preconceptions, to avoid stereotyping, and to be aware of the cultural norms and experiences of Indigenous people. It calls on journalists to give a balanced portrayal of Indigenous affairs and avoid misrepresentation, to respect local social protocols, not to use language offensive to Indigenous people, and not use paintings and symbols without permission. It also addresses the widespread prohibition among indigenous people on displaying images of the dead or naming them during periods of mourning (Free TV Australia 2004). If the period of mourning cannot readily be ascertained it suggests preceding the use of images of recently deceased with an appropriate oral warning. There are other advisory notes on the portrayal of cultural diversity, people with disabilities, the portrayal of women and men, and privacy..
Cross-cultural reporting
As we have seen already in this book, the media is constantly attacked for wielding power or influence with scant regard for truth, objectivity, and the impact its work has on the public. The All-Media Guide to Fair and Cross-Cultural Reporting (Stockwell & Scott 2000) notes that media workers who inflict unfair treatment are rarely aware of the harm their work may cause: ‘They are surprised, and sometimes offended, by community criticism.' The booklet is a practical guide for media workers and journalism students on how to write about the diverse communities in Australia. It contains useful mini-chapters on subjects like finding contacts in a diverse society, effective cross-cultural communication, and covering ethnic communities. It also covers issues associated with Indigenous reporting.
After the introduction of the Racial Hatred Act in 1995 as an amendment to the then 20-year-old Racial Discrimination Act, the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission released a booklet titled The Racial Hatred Act: A Guide for People Working in the Australian Media (Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission 1996) as a guide for journalists in covering issues of racism. The report of the National Inquiry into Racist Violence in 1991 had concluded: ‘... the perpetuation and promotion of negative racial stereotypes, a tendency towards conflictual and sensationalist reporting on race issues and an insensitivity towards and often ignorance of minority cultures can all contribute to creating a social climate which is tolerant of racist violence' (cited in Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission 1996).
It contains advice on how to cover issues of race and draws upon case studies that look at an Australian Muslim's experience of the media, the stereotyping of Indigenous Australians, and comments on Pauline Hanson's famous maiden speech to Parliament in September 1996. It, too, is a useful guide and can probably be found in most university libraries.
Reporting on the aged
There are any number of annual awards for Australian journalists, from the prized Walkley Awards administered by the MEAA to everything from business to health reporting, but one of the more creative is the national and Queensland awards coordinated by the Older People Speak Out group in Brisbane (http://www.opso.com.au). These awards recognise excellence in the portrayal of older people and their issues, through newspapers, television, radio, photography, newsletters, and advertising. The aim is to break down the stereotypes of older people held by the community-stereotypes that lead to elder abuse, mature age unemployment, and lack of self confidence in older people. The awards encourage the community to view ageing positively for the benefit of all. Bond University's Mark Pearson, with the help of media professionals, students, and the Positive Ageing Foundation of Australia, produced an interactive web-based tool to help journalists deal with issues of ageism (http://agekit.bond.edu.au). As Pearson notes: ‘Rather than being an exercise in political correctness, this resource aims to challenge perceptions and raise awareness about age and how it is represented in electronic and print media' (Pearson 2003, p. 236). It provides editors, news producers, journalism educators, and students with relevant information to help them in reporting ageing.
Reporting on disabilities
A group of Australian journalism educators is also looking at the problems faced by organisations like Special Olympics Australia in getting publicity for their activities (Tanner & Haswell 2003, p. 85). Nearly one in five Australians has a disability that affects them in their daily lives. Of those, 9 per cent have an intellectual disability (cited in Tanner & Haswell 2003, p. 85): ‘Add to this family, friends, carers and other people who work in the disability field and the number of people who stand to be "interested" in stories involving disability potentially becomes much larger' (Tanner & Haswell 2003, p. 85). The group surveyed Special Olympics Australia office-holders across the nation on their reaction to media coverage of people with an intellectual disability, the tone of the reporting, and the focus of different groups of sportspeople. Those surveyed were very negative about media reporting of an intellectual disability; felt the tone of most reporting was either how they had ‘overcome the odds to succeed' or were ‘inspirational'; and believed that the focus of media coverage was on elite sportspeople-those without a disability (Tanner & Haswell 2003, pp. 90-1). The researchers say that the media has an enormous responsibility to present disability issues in an informed and empathetic manner (Tanner & Haswell 2003, p. 99). The research is ongoing, but Tanner devotes a chapter to it in the ethics book he produced in 2005 with colleagues (Tanner et al 2005).
Trauma and journalists
Just as members of the public may be suddenly thrust into the media limelight because of a personal tragedy and find it difficult to cope, journalists, too, can be affected by what they see and hear when reporting death, tragedy, or disaster. In times past, when a journalist had to report on a particularly horrific accident and told the boss he (or she) was ‘feeling crook', they were advised to ‘have a few beers and forget about it'.
Queensland University of Technology journalism academic Phil Castle, who completed a Masters on journalists and trauma, offers the following advice on how to avoid trauma in the workplace:
Since the mid 1980s many Australian employers working in the trauma fields such as medical, police, fire, ambulance, search and rescue have adopted sound management and self-care programs to ensure their staff are not adversely affected by what has become known broadly as Post Traumatic Stress Disorder. While the military became aware of ‘war neurosis' much earlier, particularly following the Vietnam conflict of the 1960s, the media has been slower to accept it as a genuine concern in its industry. This is changing for the better.
While PTSD is rather narrowly defined clinically it is sufficient in this context to accept that many journalists have and can become ‘troubled' by covering and engaging in certain stories. Classical PTSD is a persistent, ongoing, unwanted recall of the events and circumstances which led to an unhealthy state sometimes manifested in discernable medical reactions such as high blood pressure, accelerated pulse rates and sleep disorders. Most journalists, except war correspondents, suffer vicarious PTSD in that they do not directly experience the trauma but report on the aftermath.
Some journalists (used in its widest sense to include photographers, subeditors, producers etc) have felt isolated when dealing with difficult traumatic stories and traditionally the antidote has been to get thoroughly drunk or, worse still, abuse other drugs. There can be a small positive role in having a few quiet drinks with colleagues and friends but there are other ways in which troubled journalists can deal with the aftermath of their coverage of the ‘horror' stories. The best way to deal with traumatic stories is to act professionally, do the story really well and accurately and look to your own well being, ie self-care. There is nothing to equal good self-care and that includes preparation at the training level, having the appropriate skills, equipment and support, good diet and sleep and showing genuine courtesy and empathy. That's the perfect world; in the real world, often during and after covering a trauma story many aspects change or go wrong. So it's important to remember that as journalists we have to make tough and ethical decisions, it's wise to always try to adopt the adage of treating others as you would like to be treated and you can't fake compassion.
Based on research in Australia and overseas, talking with sympathetic colleagues has been found to be an excellent early step in dealing with troubling and traumatic stories. This is important as a colleague can often identify with the story and understands the newsroom culture which can sometime exacerbate the problems. All journalists researched have shown their concern about confidentiality when expressing their troubles. They do not want their management to know when a story has badly affected them (they fear losing their job or rounds), but they do expect their managers to accept that at times their work can be troubling and even dangerous. Most major media organisations now have supportive counselling services available and provided they are confidential, they should be used, if appropriate. Often an experienced colleague can refer to an effective counsellor/clinician.
Some stories become traumatic because the journalist later realises they may have behaved unfairly, unethically, or without due care. Do no further harm is contained in some overseas codes of ethics and should have been included in the AJA code. It is important for journalists to recognise they can do harm and should not do further harm. There are too many stories of journalists having left the subjects of their stories and their family and friends hurt by the media experience. Good journalism plays an important social role in society and can be very helpful to individual people as well as the journalist.
A few tips: try to prepare when interviewing a person who has suffered, using an appropriate intermediary can help everyone, don't ever say you know how they feel, listen, be accurate in your reporting, ask permission for photographs if you can and try to explain as much as you know about the media process and how the story is likely to be used. If you get it wrong, correct it. Some trauma stories can be painful to everyone involved but doing them well can be enormously rewarding and enhance the profession of journalism (Castle 2003).
The Dart Center for Journalism and Trauma is a global network of journalists, journalism educators, and health professionals dedicated to improving media coverage of trauma, conflict, and tragedy, but also addresses the effects of such coverage on those working in the media. Its web site (http://www.dartcenter.org) contains resources to help journalists cope with covering tragedies. The Australian division of the Dart Centre can be found at < http://www.dartcenter.org/regions/melbourne/index.html>.
The tenth anniversary of the Port Arthur massacre came in April 2006, and ABC Radio National's The Media Report (Tooth 2006a) looked at the effects of the tragedy on media personnel as well as the survivors and families of the victims. A week earlier the program interviewed Joe Hight, the President of the U.S. Chapter of the Dart Centre (Tooth 2006b). The Weekend Australian magazine had published a cover story on the mass murderer, Martin Bryant, as the anniversary approached (Whittaker 2006) and The Bulletin magazine also published a cover story titled ‘Making of a monster' about Bryant (Davies 2005), leading to a media debate about the appropriateness of in-depth stories on the mass murderer at such a sensitive time.
References
Castle, P. (2003, May). Commissioned personal contribution.
Davies, J.A. (2006, 4 April). The making of a Monster, The Bulletin.
Free TV Australia (2004). Commercial Television Industry Code of Practice. Retrieved 12 April 2007 from www.freetv.com.au/SiteMedia/w3svc087/Uploads/Documents/73931737-4d3f-4002-bf0c-aaafc9a5f900.pdf.
Gibson, O. (2006, June 29). Press gets new suicide reporting guidelines. The Guardian Retrieved July 3, 2006, from http://media.guardian.co.uk/presspublishing/story/0,,1807974,00.htmlHuman Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission. (1996). The Racial Hatred Act: A Guide for People in the Australian Media. Sydney.
Lawe Davies, C., Eggerking, K., Scott, P. & Sheridan, L. (1998). Media and Indigenous Australians Project. St. Lucia. Department of Journalism, University of Queensland.
Meadows, M. (1995). Sensitivity not censorship: reporting cultural diversity in Australia. Australian Journalism Review, 17(2), 18-27.
Pearson, M. (2003). Sensitive or Sanitized? Guidelines for Reporting Age. Australian Studies in journalism, 123, 229-39.
Stockwell, S. & Scott, P. (2000). All-Media Guide to Fair and Cross-Cultural Reporting. Australian Key Centre for Cultural and Media Policy.
Tanner, S. & Haswell, S. (2003). ‘Breaking Down the Barriers: Trying to Convince Media That Disability is Newsworthy'. Australian Journalism Review 25(2) pp 85-102.
Tanner, S., Phillips, G., Smyth, C., & Tapsall, S. E. (2005). Journalism ethics and work. Sydney: Pearson Education Australia.Tooth, G. (2006a, 6 April). Port Arthur: Media Damage. Media Report. ABC Radio. Retrieved 7 April 2006 from www.abc.net.au/rn/talks/8.30/mediarpt/stories/s1608058.htm.
Tooth, G. (2006b, 30 March). Port Arthur: Report with Care. Media Report. ABC Radio. Retrieved 3 April 2006 from www.abc.net.au/rn/talks/8.30/mediarpt/stories/s1603052.htm.
Whittaker, M. (2006, 1-2 April). The Evil Within. Weekend Australian Magazine, 22-29.
