This second edition of Earth Under Siege, provides a basic understanding of how our physical environment functions and how human activities affect it. Intended to educate the lay person-especially the policy makers, business administrators, and political leaders of the future-about some of the most pressing problems facing our modern world, this important book effectively describes the realities of environmental pollution and global change. It provides a comprehensive description of the natural environment and builds a foundation on which the science and policy of current environmental issues can be understood.

Each chapter ends with Questions and Problems. Foreword by Carl Sagan Preface Preface to the First Edition 1. Introduction 1.1. The Cronus Syndrome 1.2. On the Quality of Life 1.3. Global Change and Preservation 1.4. Methodology for Study Part I. Fundamentals 2. Air: The Medium of Change 2.1. What Is Air? 2.1.1. Sensing Air 2.1.2. The Basic Ingredients 2.1.3. The Basic Properties 2.2. A Short History of Discovery 2.2.1. The Air Revealed 2.2.2. The Mechanics of Air 2.3. The Structure of the Atmosphere 2.3.1. How Much Air Is There? 2.3.2. Temperature Profiles 2.3.3. The Stratification of the Atmosphere 2.4. Air in Motion 2.4.1. Local Winds and Weather 2.4.2. Global Wind Systems 3. Basic Physical and Chemical Principles 3.1. The Mechanical Behavior of Gases and Particles 3.1.1. Gas Laws and Hydrostatics 3.1.2. Particles in Suspension 3.1.3. Clouds and Precipitation 3.2. Radiation and Energy 3.2.1. Sunlight and Heat 3.2.2. Scattering and Absorption 3.2.3. Common Optical Effects 3.3. Chemistry and the Environment 3.3.1. Symbols and Terminology 3.3.2. Properties of Common Substances 3.3.3. The Mechanisms of Chemical Reactions 3.3.4. Basic Chemical Reactions 4. The Evolution of Earth 4.1. The Origin of the Earth 4.1.1. Early Evolutionary Phases 4.1.2. Box Models for Earth Reservoirs 4.1.3. The Prebiotic Atmosphere 4.2. The Coevolution of the Environment and Life 4.2.1. The Evolution of Life Processes 4.2.2. Ancient Organisms and Greenhouse Gases 4.2.3. Photosynthesis and the Ozone Layer 4.3. The Mass Extinction of Life 4.3.1. Fossil History 4.3.2. The Dinosaurs: A Lesson in Longevity 4.3.3. Goddess Gaia and Homeostasis 4.4. The Coevolution of Intelligence and Pollution 4.4.1. Population and Technology Part II. Local and Regional Pollution Issues 5. Sources and Dispersion of Pollutants 5.1. The Source of the Problem 5.1.1. What to Call Pollutants? 5.1.2. Distributed and Point Sources 5.1.3. Size Scales of Dispersion 5.2. The Dispersion of Pollutants 5.2.1. Diffusion and Turbulence 5.2.2. Convection and Lofting 5.2.3. Advection and Long-Range Transport 5.3. Temperature Inversions 5.3.1. Temperatures in the Lower Atmosphere 5.3.2. Atmospheric Stability 5.3.3. Large-Scale Inversions 5.4. Plumes of Pollution 5.4.1. Smokestack Plumes 5.4.2. Ground Plumes 5.4.3. Urban Heat Islands 5.5. Regional Dispersion of Pollutants 5.5.1. In Coastal Zones 5.5.2. Near Mountain Barriers 6. Smog: The Urban Syndrome 6.1. The History of Smog 6.1.1. Air Pollution and Poets 6.1.2. London Smog 6.1.3. Los Angeles Smog 6.2. Primary and Secondary Pollutants 6.2.1. The Basic Ingredients 6.2.2. Clean and Dirty Air 6.3. Smog Scenarios: A Typical Polluted Day 6.3.1. Carbon Monoxide 6.3.2. Nitrogen Dioxide 6.3.3. Ozone 6.4. Dissecting Smog 6.4.1. The Evolution of Smoggy Air 6.4.2. Trends in Air Pollution 6.5. Haze and Visibility 6.5.1. Total Suspended Particulate 6.5.2. Seeing through Air 6.5.3. Acid Particles and Fog 6.6. Controlling Smog: Everyone's Job 6.6.1. Reducing Emissions of Primary Pollutants 6.6.2. Alternative Fuels 6.6.3. Lifestyles for Health and Survival 7. Effects of Exposure to Pollution 7.1. How Pollutants Affect Health 7.1.1. The Discovery of Toxicity 7.1.2. The Physiology of Toxicity 7.2. The Toxic Effects of Air Pollutants 7.2.1. Common Ingredients of Smog 7.2.2. Eye Irritants 7.2.3. Organic Vapors 7.2.4. Problem Particles 7.2.5. Persistent Environmental Toxins 7.3. Radioactivity 7.3.1. Stability of the Elements 7.3.2. Sources of Radioactivity 7.3.3. The Physiological Effects of Radioactivity 7.4. Assessment of Health Risks 7.4.1. Defining the Threat 7.4.2. Risks and Benefits of Pollution 7.4.3. Box Models for Risk Assessment 7.4.4. Urban Smog: A Case Study 7.5. Limiting Risk 8. Indoor Air Pollution 8.1. What Are "Indoor" Air Pollutants? 8.1.1. The Special Character of Indoor Pollution 8.1.2. Indoor Pollution and the News 8.2. Radon: Mother and Daughters 8.2.1. Poison from the Earth 8.2.2. Radon Exposure and Its Effects 8.3. Formaldehyde 8.3.1. Embalmers' Fluid 8.3.2. Formaldehyde's Impacts on Health 8.4. Tobacco Smoke 8.4.1. Composition of Tobacco Smoke 8.4.2. Tobacco Smoke's Effects on Health 8.4.3. Smoke and Mirrors 8.5. Other Indoor Pollutants 8.5.1. Biogenic Pollutants 8.5.2. Indoor Water Pollution 8.6. Indoor Versus Outdoor Pollution 8.6.1. Is It Safe to Go Indoors? 8.6.2. Making Indoors Safe 9. Acid Rain 9.1. The Tainted Rain 9.2. Acidity and pH 9.2.1. The pH Scale 9.2.2. Acids in Water 9.2.3. Alkalinity: The Acid Buffer 9.3. Sources of Environmental Acids 9.3.1. How Acid Is Acid Rain? 9.3.2. Sulfur Oxides and Acid Rain 9.3.3. Nitrogen Oxides and Acid Rain 9.4. Acid Fog 9.5. The Costs of Excess Acidity 9.5.1. Dying Forests and Lakes 9.5.2. A Potpourri of Destruction 9.5.3. Health Implications 9.6. Controlling Acid Rain and Fog Part III. Global-Scale Pollution Issues Carbon Dioxide and the Greenhouse Effect Ozone Depletion and the Ozone Hole Climate Change Caused by Nuclear War: Nuclear Winter The Relationship between Population and Pollution 10. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 10.1. The Grand Chemical Cycles of Earth 10.1.1. Reservoirs in the Earth System 10.1.2. Simple Reservoir Models 10.2. Biogeochemical Cycles of the Primary Elements 10.2.1. Sulfur 10.2.2. Nitrogen 10.2.3. Oxygen 10.2.4. Carbon 10.3. The Hydrological Cycle 10.4. A Global Garbage Dump? 11. The Climate Machine 11.1. Weather and Climate 11.2. Energy from the Sun 11.2.1. Solar Illumination 11.2.2. The Four Seasons 11.3. The Temperature of Earth 11.3.1. Sunlight In, Earthglow Out 11.3.2. An Energy Balance Model 11.3.3. The Temperatures of the Planets 11.4. The Greenhouse Effect 11.4.1. Atmospheric Band Absorption 11.4.2. Radiation Emission from the Earth 11.4.3. Clouds and Radiation 11.4.4. The Greenhouse Energy Balance 11.5. Energy Reservoirs: The Climate Flywheel 11.5.1. Reservoirs for Heat 11.5.2. Ice: The Cool Reservoir 11.5.3. A Coupled Climate System 11.6. Causes of Climate Change 11.6.1. Climate Variability 11.6.2. Solar Variability: External Forcing 11.6.3. Ice Ages 11.6.4. Volcanic Eruptions 11.6.5. The Albedo Effect 11.7. The Vulnerability of Life to a Changing Climate 11.7.1. Modern Society and Climate 11.7.2. Do We Need Climate Insurance? 12. Greenhouse Warming 12.1. Greenhouse Gases 12.1.1. The Greenhouse Culprits: A Rogue's Gallery 12.1.2. Water Vapor: Innocent Bystander or Good Samaritan? 12.2. Carbon Dioxide 12.2.1. Increasing CO2: What Is the Cause? 12.2.2. The Problem with Energy Addiction 12.3. Other Greenhouse Gases 12.3.1. Methane 12.3.2. Nitrous Oxide 12.3.3. Chlorofluorocarbons 12.3.4. Ozone 12.4. the Warming Effect of Greenhouse Gases 12.4.1. Climate History and the Greenhouse Effect 12.4.2. Recent Temperature Trends 12.4.3. Forecasts of Greenhouse Warming 12.4.4. Uncertainty Is the Future 12.4. Solutions? 12.5.1. Recyclable Fuels 12.5.2. Alternative Energy Sources 12.5.3. Climate Correction: Endangering the Environment 13. The Stratospheric Ozone Layer 13.1. The Ozone Shield 13.2. The Formation and Destruction of Ozone 13.2.1. The Photochemistry of Ozone 13.2.2. The Destruction of Catalytic Ozone 13.3. The Distribution of Ozone in the Atmosphere 13.3.1. Dobson Units: Ozone Overhead 13.3.2. How Much Ozone Is There? 13.4. Ozone and Ultraviolet Radiation 13.4.1. Regions of the Ultraviolet Spectrum 13.4.2. Health Effects of UV-B Radiation 13.4.3. Environmental Effects of UV-B Radiation 13.5. Threats Against Ozone 13.5.1. A Litany of Threats 13.5.2. Chlorine 13.5.3. Nitrogen Oxides and Ozone Change 13.5.4. Bromine and the Halons 13.6. Forecasts of Global Ozone Depletion 13.6.1. Scenarios and Projections 13.6.2. Signature of the Culprit 13.7. The Ozone Hole 13.7.1. Discovery 13.7.2. The Polar Vortex 13.7.3. Polar Stratospheric Clouds 13.7.4. Ozone Depletion: The Hole Story 13.7.5. A Global Ozone Disaster? 13.8. Solutions and Actions 13.8.1. The Montreal Protocol 13.8.2. Saving the Earth's Ozone Layer 14. Global Environmental Engineering 14.1. What Is Global Environmental Engineering? 14.1.1. Living Thermostats: Natural Compensation 14.1.2. Planetary Engineering 14.2. Technological Traps 14.2.1. Nuclear Winter 14.2.2. Carbon Dioxide 14.2.3. Chlorofluorocarbons 14.3. Technological Cures 14.3.1. Preventing Armageddon 14.3.2. Cooling Down the Greenhouse 14.3.3. Fixing the Ozone Shield 14.4. A Rational Approach to Environmental Management Appendix A. Scientific Notation, Units, and Constants A.1. Scientific Notation Applications of Scientific Notation Large and Small Numbers Using Mixing Ratios A.2. The Metric System: Units and Conversions Common Units of Measure Manipulation of Dimensions and Units A.3. Physical and Mathematical Constants Physical Constants (and Their Common Symbols) Mathematical Constants A.4. Mathematical Operations Squares and Square Roots Higher Powers Exponentials and Logarithms Algebraic Equations Inequalities Appendix B. Demonstrations of Common Natural Phenomena Demonstration 1: Light Scattering by Small Particles Background Experimental Procedure Demonstration 2: Gas-to-Particle Conversion in Smog Background Experimental Procedure Demonstration 3: Atmospheric Pressure and Water Vapor Condensation Background Experimental Procedure Demonstration 4: Acid Rain Formation Background Experimental Procedure Appendix C. Radiation Nomenclature Index

From Air Pollution to Global Change Second Edition Richard P. Turco, University of California